Engineered cartilage generated by nasal chondrocytes is responsive to physical forces resembling joint loading. Implantation of scaffold-free engineered cartilage constructs in a rabbit model for chondral resurfacing. Xenotransplantation and risks of zoonotic infections. The immunology of bone and cartilage transplantation. Large, stratified, and mechanically functional human cartilage grown in vitro by mesenchymal condensation. The interplay between chondrocyte redifferentiation pellet size and oxygen concentration. Self-organization and the self-assembling process in tissue engineering. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, 2013.Īthanasiou, K. Formation of biphasic constructs containing cartilage with a calcified zone interface. The potential of human allogeneic juvenile chondrocytes for restoration of articularĬartilage. In vitro generation of scaffold independent neocartilage. Inasmuch as scaffold-based musculoskeletal tissue engineering approaches have been employed as a paradigm to generate engineered cartilages with appropriate functional properties, scaffold-free approaches are emerging as promising elements of a translational pathway not only for musculoskeletal cartilages but for other tissues as well.Īdkisson, H. The concept of combining scaffold-free and scaffold-based tissue engineering methods to address clinical needs is also discussed. Factors that enhance the matrix production and mechanical properties of these engineered cartilages are also reviewed, as the fabrication of biomimetically suitable tissues is necessary to replicate function and ensure graft survival in vivo. Immunological considerations are of particular importance as engineered tissues are frequently of allogeneic, if not xenogeneic, origin. Discussed are various scaffold-free approaches for musculoskeletal cartilage tissue engineering, such as cell sheet engineering, aggregation, and the self-assembling process, as well as the availability and variety of cells used. Scaffold-free approaches, particularly the self-assembling process, mimic elements of developmental processes underlying these tissues. Musculoskeletal cartilages-for example articular cartilage, meniscus, temporomandibular joint disc, and intervertebral disc-are characterized by low vascularity and cellularity, and are amenable to scaffold-free tissue engineering approaches. This review explores scaffold-free methods as an additional paradigm for tissue engineering.
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